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Erik Nemeth

  • I am interested in the evolving significance of culture to international security. Since 2001, I have assessed the pr... moreedit
The sale of illicit goods provides an important funding source for terrorist organizations, organized crime, and rogue states. Therefore, tracking and disrupting these networks is an important national security goal, but it is often... more
The sale of illicit goods provides an important funding source for terrorist organizations,
organized crime, and rogue states. Therefore, tracking and disrupting these networks
is an important national security goal, but it is often difficult to accomplish because of
the clandestine nature of these transactions.

The authors of this report aim to track these networks through open-source
data. They pair this research with analytical frameworks that could help policymakers
and law enforcement personnel better respond to these issues while also providing
advocates, experts, and researchers in the field with a set of grounded estimates and
methodologies to build on in their future research. The authors demonstrate how
these methods can be used to map a specific illicit market and discuss how these
methodologies can be reused in similar projects.
This book reveals the evolving significance of cultural property to international security and accordingly proposes a new field of study. Over the past two centuries, abuse of antiquities and fine art has evolved from the spoils-of-war... more
This book reveals the evolving significance of cultural property to international security and accordingly proposes a new field of study. Over the past two centuries, abuse of antiquities and fine art has evolved from the spoils-of-war into a medium for conducting terrorism which strives to erase the cultural heritage of ‘the other’. In contrast to wartime destruction and plunder, which date back millennia, the growth of the art market over the past fifty years has created opportunities for novel abuses of cultural property. Since World War II, maturing international awareness has recognized the threat that armed conflict and looting pose to cultural property, but in parallel, art trafficking and the politics of cultural property have become tools for organized crime and emerging nations. The resulting unique intersection of issues in cultural property, foreign policy, and national security forms the basis for a new field—cultural security. After an assessment of topical security threats, which suggest the need for such a field, the book concludes by speculating on the “alternative power” of an emerging political economy of cultural property.
Abstract: Recent armed conflict in Iraq and Afghanistan and political violence in Egypt have revealed the strategic significance of cultural property. This paper assesses the role of historic sites and antiquities in foreign engagement.... more
Abstract: Recent armed conflict in Iraq and Afghanistan and political violence in Egypt have revealed the strategic significance of cultural property. This paper assesses the role of historic sites and antiquities in foreign engagement. Over the past century, US foreign ...
International conventions that protect cultural property during armed conflict, along with bilateral treaties that target antiquities trafficking, indicate a need for intelligence on foreign cultural patrimony. The 'acquisition' of... more
International conventions that protect cultural property during armed conflict, along with bilateral treaties that target antiquities trafficking, indicate a need for intelligence on foreign cultural patrimony.  The 'acquisition' of Jewish collections by Nazi authorities in World War II precipitated cases for restitution of the illicitly acquired artworks, and the international nature of the cases has developed the political clout of cultural property. Similarly, trafficking in antiquities from developing nations during the Cold War era has led to repatriation claims, which increase the significance of cultural property as currency in foreign relations. A simultaneous increase in the financial volume of the art and antiquities market has attracted the attention of transnational organized crime and creates funding opportunities for terrorist groups. This paper examines how security-intelligence services of World War II and the Cold War controlled both the looting and recovery of fine art and antiquities.  The examination reveals the value of intelligence on foreign cultural property in diplomacy and countering threats to national security.
As collectors bid up the market value of masterworks, regime forces and rebels in Syria leverage the political clout of cultural property by blaming one another for the destruction. But do high-value artworks and the targeting of cultural... more
As collectors bid up the market value of masterworks, regime forces and rebels in Syria leverage the political clout of cultural property by blaming one another for the destruction. But do high-value artworks and the targeting of cultural heritage sites have anything in common? While the art market and regional conflict may not seem related, financial interest in masterworks and wanton destruction of historic monuments both reflect the underlying power of art and culture.
By examining the historically progressive role of cultural property in terrorism and political violence, this paper reveals the evolving significance of art to international security. Over the past two centuries, abuse of antiquities and... more
By examining the historically progressive role of cultural property in terrorism and political violence, this paper reveals the evolving significance of art to international security. Over the past two centuries, abuse of antiquities and fine art has evolved from the spoils-of-war into a medium for conducting terrorism which strives to erase the cultural heritage of ‘the other’. In contrast to wartime destruction and plunder which date back millennia, the growth of the art market over the past fifty years has created opportunities for novel abuses of cultural property. Since World War II, maturing international awareness has recognized the threat which armed conflict and looting pose to cultural property, but in parallel, art trafficking and the politics of cultural property have become tools for transnational organized crime and terrorist groups. The resulting unique intersection of issues in art, politics and counterterrorism forms the basis for a new field—cultural security. After an assessment of topical security threats which suggest the need for such a field, the paper concludes by speculating on international-security risks precipitating from antiquities trafficking and collecting.
In the background of immediate threats of terrorism and political violence, a non-physical, insidious threat to international security develops. Progressive abuses against cultural heritage support campaigns of terrorism while... more
In the background of immediate threats of terrorism and political violence, a non-physical, insidious threat to international security develops. Progressive abuses against cultural heritage support campaigns of terrorism while simultaneously undermining the political credibility of targeted nations. This paper emphasizes the need for art-centric intelligence to counter the political and financial benefits that terrorist groups gain from the erosion of cultural heritage. Primary types of erosion include wanton destruction of cultural property in campaigns of ethnic cleansing, looting of undocumented cultural artifacts, and collateral damage to historic buildings and religious monuments during military action against terrorist groups. While all types of destruction confer political clout on terrorist groups, wartime destruction and looting of cultural artifacts directly impact nations that combat terrorism. During armed conflict, invading nations incur political liability by negligently damaging cultural property. Similarly, so-called collecting nations incur political liability as private individuals encourage erosion of cultural heritage by creating a viable market for looted antiquities. Through an informal proposal for an art-intelligence program, this paper examines immediate political risks engendered by physical erosion of cultural heritage and speculates on evolving threats to international security as transnational terrorist groups capitalize on the intangible value of manipulating cultural identity.
The tightening interrelation of cultural property and international security—cultural security—creates a need for the collection and analysis of specialized intelligence. “Cultural intelligence” enables assessments of the tactical and... more
The tightening interrelation of cultural property and international security—cultural security—creates a need for the collection and analysis of specialized intelligence. “Cultural intelligence” enables assessments of the tactical and strategic significance of antiquities, fine art, and cultural heritage sites to national and regional security. This paper defines a framework for the collection of cultural intelligence as a fundamental asset in countering threats to cultural security. Looting of antiquities as a tactic in campaigns of cultural cleansing, trafficking in antiquities as a source of funding for insurgents, and targeting of historic structures and religious monuments in political violence represent distinct threats to regional security. A critical initial step in countering the threats includes marshalling appropriate sources of information. Publications that report on the art market and cultural property globally and players in the antiquities trade offer opportunities as sources of cultural intelligence. Ultimately, the development of tactical and strategic cultural intelligence can reveal trafficking networks and assess risks to cultural heritage sites. As a starting point, this paper indentifies viable sources of cultural intelligence. Conflicts in Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003) provide examples in retrospect, while volatility in Mali presents an opportunity in the context of an emerging security risk. In conclusion, the paper speculates on the applications of cultural intelligence in regional security.
The traditionally clandestine nature of the art market poses challenges to assessing looting and trafficking in developing nations. In the absence of direct information on transactions in source nations, sales at auction provide a sense... more
The traditionally clandestine nature of the art market poses challenges to assessing looting and trafficking in developing nations. In the absence of direct information on transactions in source nations, sales at auction provide a sense of the market value and trade volume of antiquities and primitive art. Auction houses openly publish results of auctions and enable access to sales archives through web sites. On-line access to sales archives creates a substantive pool of data on hammer prices from auctions around the world. Sales archives also contain detailed descriptions of the artworks. The description that accompanies an auction lot can identify the geographic origin of the artwork. Data mining of sales archives for hammer price and origin enables analysis of market value by source nation. The analysis assesses relative market value and, thereby, contributes to an assessment of relative risks of looting across developing nations.
Military engagement of insurgents risks destruction of religious monuments and historic structures, and political and economic instability that follows armed conflict enables looting of antiquities. In combination, threats to cultural... more
Military engagement of insurgents risks destruction of religious monuments and historic structures, and political and economic instability that follows armed conflict enables looting of antiquities. In combination, threats to cultural structures and movable cultural patrimony compromise cultural security. This paper explores the potential of the art market for open-source intelligence assessments of cultural security. A comparison of the market value of artifacts of different ethnic origins provides a measure of the risk of looting of cultural patrimony by geographic region. Intelligence assessments of the relative desirability of cultural artifacts by region of origin can inform strategic planning to mitigate looting in conflict zones and to alert security services to emerging threats of trafficking in cultural patrimony.
Historically, empires recruited scholars to capture artworks as a complement to military victory. Over the past century, cultural scholars have integrated fine art and antiquities into campaigns of conquest and assessed the political... more
Historically, empires recruited scholars to capture artworks as a complement to military victory. Over the past century, cultural scholars have integrated fine art and antiquities into campaigns of conquest and assessed the political ramifications of damage to historic sites and religious monuments in military intervention. Consequently, historians, archaeologists, and legal scholars have advanced the role of cultural patrimony in international conflict from a rite of conquest to a means of combat. In World War II, art historians in the Nazi regime planned plunder of artworks and destruction of historic structures as a tactic for conquest. During the Cold War, archaeological discoveries in developing nations enabled looting of cultural artifacts, and subsequent legal studies on the transfer of cultural property developed the value of cultural patrimony in the covert battle for control of the Third World. In the post-Cold War as transnational organized crime and terrorism exploit antiquities trafficking and target cultural sites in acts of political violence, scholars in international relations consider culture in security theories. Across the three periods of international conflict, cultural scholars have actively developed the tactical value of cultural patrimony and played a role in transforming the perception of plunder in the context of military victory.
International conventions that criminalize wartime abuse of cultural property and bilateral treaties that target trafficking in antiquities reflect evolving consideration for looted art in foreign policy. Since the poignant plunder of... more
International conventions that criminalize wartime abuse of cultural property and bilateral treaties that target trafficking in antiquities reflect evolving consideration for looted art in foreign policy. Since the poignant plunder of Jewish collections by Nazi authorities, restitution of artworks has garnered political clout, and looting of developing nations during the Cold War era compounded the significance of cultural property in international affairs. In parallel, the increasing financial volume of the art market over the past half-century has attracted the attention of transnational organized crime and has implications for funding of terrorist groups. This paper examines how security-intelligence services of World War II and the Cold War controlled the looting and recovery of cultural property. Related activities in the post-Cold War period suggest that applications for foreign intelligence on looted art have expanded from diplomacy to security policy.
The market value of tribal art has implications for the risk of looting in Africa. Consequent trafficking in tribal art compromises security on the continent by eroding cultural identity, fostering public-sector corruption, and providing... more
The market value of tribal art has implications for the risk of looting in Africa. Consequent trafficking in tribal art compromises security on the continent by eroding cultural identity, fostering public-sector corruption, and providing a source of revenue for insurgents. This paper examines auction sales of African tribal art for the continent as a whole and by individual nations of origin. Graphical analysis of sales data from the past nine years identifies distinct market trends for temporal comparison with security in nations from which the artworks originate. The analysis suggests that collecting trends in “market nations” may reflect perceptions of security in “source nations”.
Reflection on wartime treatment of artworks, historic buildings, and religious monuments since World War I reveals the compounding value of cultural property in foreign affairs. The poignant plunder of artworks during World War II has led... more
Reflection on wartime treatment of artworks, historic buildings, and religious monuments since World War I reveals the compounding value of cultural property in foreign affairs. The poignant plunder of artworks during World War II has led to a history of restitution that suggests a model for the resolution of wartime art crime. The exploitation of cultural artifacts in developing nations during the Cold War era tests the model for repatriation of antiquities, and the destruction of historic and religious monuments in the post-Cold War period offers an opportunity to apply the model in predictive analysis for strategies in foreign policy. Specific examples illustrate the maturing market value of Nazi plunder. Successful restitution cases and an expanding art market inspire repatriation of looted antiquities. The financial and political significance of artworks decades after the wartime art crime indicate that the clout of displaced cultural property in foreign affairs increases with time.
Recent armed conflict in Iraq and Afghanistan and political violence in Egypt have revealed the strategic significance of cultural property. This paper assesses the role of historic sites and antiquities in foreign engagement. Over the... more
Recent armed conflict in Iraq and Afghanistan and political violence in Egypt have revealed the strategic significance of cultural property. This paper assesses the role of historic sites and antiquities in foreign engagement. Over the past century, U.S. foreign policy has had successes and shortcomings in leveraging protection of cultural patrimony to strategic advantage. The contrast of successful policy on the protection of immovable cultural property, such as religious monuments, in armed conflict and missed opportunities for tactical intelligence on the trade in movable cultural property, such as antiquities trafficking, identifies potential for development of foreign policy.
Three issues with far-reaching causes and consequences, climate change, water scarcity, and pandemics, are examined with attention to their national security implications and impacts on the global commons. The authors aim to trigger new... more
Three issues with far-reaching causes and consequences, climate change, water scarcity, and pandemics, are examined with attention to their national security implications and impacts on the global commons. The authors aim to trigger new ways of thinking about the complex challenges of these issues. Because their effects are mostly the result of individuals and states acting out of self-interest rather than harmful intent, these three issues are treated as "threats without threateners." With sources and solutions that cross national and regional boundaries, multiple parties working together are more effective than unilateral action. In all three areas, risks are hard to assess, in both severity and time frame; therefore, mustering political will and coalitions for action is inherently difficult. The paper describes four overlapping clusters of policy approaches, international negotiations, coalitions of the willing, transcommunity networking, and anti-fragile approaches, and their relative successes and limitations. Considered one of the policy approaches with the greatest potential for tackling interconnected global challenges, anti-fragile systems do not just cope with change or uncertainty; they benefit from them. They search for alternatives that attract new participants, scale to accommodate those new participants, and create positive feedback loops that enable them not only to perform as well as or better than legacy systems but to continually improve over time. Using suggestive examples to illustrate each type of approach, the paper builds a case for the evolution of policy away from fixing problems and toward new possibilities and combinations of methods to address threats that are both chronic and acute.
Discovery of academic literature through Web search engines challenges the traditional role of specialized research databases. Creation of literature outside of academic presses and peer-reviewed publications expands the content for... more
Discovery of academic literature through Web search engines challenges the traditional role of specialized research databases. Creation of literature outside of academic presses and peer-reviewed publications expands the content for scholarly research within a particular field. The resulting body of literature raises the question of whether scholars prefer the perceived broader access of Web search engines or opt for the precision of field-specific research databases. Surveys of art historians indicate a complementary use of on-line search tools with a reliance on field-specific research databases to discover authoritative content. Active use of Web search engines and initiatives for open access suggest that research databases will integrate into an evolving Web-based infrastructure that supports discovery and access of scholarly literature.
Against a backdrop of increasing access to full text and the perceived success of Web search engines, academic disciplines with highly specialized, if not esoteric, nomenclature remain in need of specially crafted metadata. Art history... more
Against a backdrop of increasing access to full text and the perceived success of Web search engines, academic disciplines with highly specialized, if not esoteric, nomenclature remain in need of specially crafted metadata. Art history and the study of architecture represent two such disciplines. Historically, field-specific research databases have maintained canons of citations complemented with descriptive abstracting and precise indexing. Surveys of art and architectural historians identify the value of abstracting and indexing to scholarly research. The perceived importance indicates a need to integrate discipline-specific abstracts and vocabularies into the evolving Web-based infrastructure for searching of scholarly literature and to enable the continued production of such metadata.
In this paper, a vertebrate retina model is described based on a cellular neural network (CNN) architecture. Though largely built on the experience of previous studies, the CNN computational framework is considerably simplified:... more
In this paper, a vertebrate retina model is described based on a cellular neural network (CNN) architecture. Though largely built on the experience of previous studies, the CNN computational framework is considerably simplified: first-order RC cells are used with space-invariant nearest-neighbour interactions only. All non-linear synaptic connections are monotonic continuous functions of the pre-synaptic voltage. Time delays in the interactions are continuous represented by additional first-order cells. The modelling approach is neuromorphic in its spirit relying on both morphological and pharmacological information. However, the primary motivation lies in fitting the spatio-temporal output of the model to the data recorded from biological cells (tiger salamander). In order to meet a low-complexity (VLSI) implementation framework some structural simplifications have been made. Large-neighbourhood interaction (neurons with large processes), furthermore inter-layer signal propagation are modelled through diffusion and wave phenomena. This work presents novel CNN models for the outer and some partial models for the inner (light adapted) retina. It describes an approach that focuses on efficient parameter tuning and also makes it possible to discuss adaptation, sensitivity and robustness issues on retinal ‘image processing’ from an engineering point of view.
Most retinal ganglion cells respond only transiently, for ∼150 msec at the onset and termination of a light flash. The responses are transient because it has been shown that bipolar-to-ganglion cell transmission is truncated after 150... more
Most retinal ganglion cells respond only transiently, for ∼150 msec at the onset and termination of a light flash. The responses are transient because it has been shown that bipolar-to-ganglion cell transmission is truncated after 150 msec by a feedback inhibition to bipolar cell terminals. The feedback inhibition itself must be delayed by ∼150 msec to allow the initial bipolar–ganglion cell transmission. This study identifies a three-component serial synaptic pathway from glycinergic amacrine cells to GABAergic amacrine cells to bipolar cell terminals as one source of this delay. We used perforated and whole-cell patch-clamp recordings to measure the timing of light responses in amacrine, bipolar, and ganglion cells under control and glycine and GABA receptor-blocked conditions. Our results suggest that, after a light flash, a population of glycinergic amacrine cells responds first, inhibiting a population of GABAergic amacrine cells for ∼150 msec. The GABAergic amacrine cells feed back to bipolar terminals, but only after the 150 msec delay, allowing the bipolar terminals to excite ganglion cells for the first 150 msec. Blocking the glycinergic amacrine cell activity with strychnine allows the GABAergic system to become active earlier. GABAergic amacrine cells then inhibit release from bipolar cells earlier. Under these conditions, the ganglion cell response to change would be decreased.
The space–time patterns of activity generated across arrays of retinal neurons can provide a sensitive measurement of the effects of neural interactions underlying retinal activity. We measured the excitatory and inhibitory components... more
The space–time patterns of activity generated across arrays of retinal neurons can provide a sensitive measurement of the effects of neural interactions underlying retinal activity. We measured the excitatory and inhibitory components associated with these patterns at each cellular level in the retina and further dissected inhibitory components pharmacologically. Using perforated and loose patch recording, we measured the voltages, currents, or spiking at 91 lateral positions covering ∼2 mm in response to a flashed 300-μm-wide bar. First, we showed how the effect of well known lateral inhibition at the outer retina, mediated by horizontal cells, evolved in time to compress the spatial representation of the stimulus bar at ON and OFF bipolar cell bodies as well as horizontal cells. Second, we showed, for the first time, how GABAC receptor mediated amacrine cell feedback to bipolar terminals compresses the spatial representation of the stimulus bar at ON bipolar terminals over time. Third, we showed that a third spatiotemporal compression exists at the ganglion cell layer that is mediated by feedforward amacrine cells via GABAA receptors. These three inhibitory mechanisms, via three different receptor types, appear to compensate for the effects of lateral diffusion of activity attributable to dendritic spread and electrical coupling between retinal neurons. As a consequence, the width of the final representation at the ganglion cell level approximates the dimensions of the original stimulus bar.
In this paper, a vertebrate retina model is described based on a cellular neural network (CNN) architecture. Though largely built on the experience of previous studies, the CNN computational framework is considerably simplified:... more
In this paper, a vertebrate retina model is described based on a cellular neural network (CNN) architecture. Though largely built on the experience of previous studies, the CNN computational framework is considerably simplified: first-order RC cells are used with space-invariant nearest-neighbour interactions only. All non-linear synaptic connections are monotonic continuous functions of the pre-synaptic voltage. Time delays in the interactions are continuous represented by additional first-order cells. The modelling approach is neuromorphic in its spirit relying on both morphological and pharmacological information. However, the primary motivation lies in fitting the spatio-temporal output of the model to the data recorded from biological cells (tiger salamander). In order to meet a low-complexity (VLSI) implementation framework some structural simplifications have been made. Large-neighbourhood interaction (neurons with large processes), furthermore inter-layer signal propagation are modelled through diffusion and wave phenomena. This work presents novel CNN models for the outer and some partial models for the inner (light adapted) retina. It describes an approach that focuses on efficient parameter tuning and also makes it possible to discuss adaptation, sensitivity and robustness issues on retinal ‘image processing’ from an engineering point of view.
A vertebrate retina model is described based on a cellular neural network (CNN) architecture. Though largely built on the experience of previous studies the CNN computational framework is considerably simplified: first order RC cells are... more
A vertebrate retina model is described based on a cellular neural network (CNN) architecture. Though largely built on the experience of previous studies the CNN computational framework is considerably simplified: first order RC cells are used with space-invariant nearest neighbor interactions only. All nonlinear synaptic connections are monotonic continuous functions of the pre-synaptic voltage. Time delays in the interactions are continuous represented by additional first order cells. The modeling approach is neuromorphic in its spirit relying on both morphological and pharmacological information. However, the primary motivation lies in fitting the spatio-temporal output of the model to the data recorded from biological cells (tiger salamander). In order to meet a low complexity (VLSI) implementation framework some structural simplifications have been made and large neighborhood interaction (neurons with large processes), furthermore the inter-layer signal propagation are modeled through diffusion and wave phenomena. This work presents novel CNN models for the outer and some partial models for the inner (light adopted) retina.
Abstract Retinal models based on the cellular neural network (CNN) paradigm have been widely used. These neuromorphic models are based on retinal anatomy and physiology. In this paper a framework is proposed for qualitative... more
Abstract Retinal models based on the cellular neural network (CNN) paradigm have been widely used. These neuromorphic models are based on retinal anatomy and physiology. In this paper a framework is proposed for qualitative spatio-temporal studies in vertebrate retinas, the underlying retinal anatomy is followed as closely as possible, the characteristics of the physiological models, however, are kept simple. The goal is to model the qualitative effects, since the developed models are simple, compared to a fully neuromorphic one, we ...
We determined how the space-time patterns of excitation are integrated with patterns of inhibition to generate the spiking patterns for four main types of ganglion cells. Excitation and inhibition were isolated both pharmacologically and... more
We determined how the space-time patterns of excitation are integrated with patterns of inhibition to generate the spiking patterns for four main types of ganglion cells. Excitation and inhibition were isolated both pharmacologically and by voltage-clamping to the appropriate reversal potentials. To estimate the characteristics of these patterns, we “scanned” a single patch-clamped ganglion cell with a 300 micrometer square, moved to 400 different locations within a rectangular grid 2 mm on a side. The 400 ganglion cell responses, “played back” simultaneously in proper spatial order approximated the time course of a 2 dimensional pattern or neural representation of the square stimulus across an array of 400 ganglion cells in response to the flashed square.

Sustained excitatory patterns closely matched the dimensions of the stimulus but more transient excitatory patterns were wider. Inhibitory patterns were of three types: 1) a relatively wide, transient feed-forward GABAergic inhibition, 2) a narrower, sustained feed-forward glycinergic inhibition and 3) a relatively wide-field, transient feed-forward glycinergic inhibition.  We also measured two complementary forms of disinhibition: 1) an increase in GABAergic inhibition in the presence of glycine receptor blockers and 2) an increase in narrow-field glycinergic inhibition in the presence of GABA-A receptor blockers.

The patterns of excitation and inhibition appear to be integrated in specific and limited combinations to form four different classes of ganglion cell activity: 1) narrow-sustained ON-OFF excitation with narrow or wide glycinergic inhibition, 2) wide-transient ON-OFF excitation with GABAergic inhibition, 3) wide-transient OFF excitation with wide glycinergic inhibition and 4) sustained ON excitation with narrow glycinergic inhibition.
What does the phrase "cultural security" mean? How would you define it? Here are a few examples of usage. In Australia, the phrase is used when speaking about how modernization threatens to change the way of life of Aborigines. In... more
What does the phrase "cultural security" mean? How would you define it?

Here are a few examples of usage.

In Australia, the phrase is used when speaking about how modernization threatens to change the way of life of Aborigines. In China, political officials have employed the phrase as policy to guard against the "negative" influence of foreign pop culture. In Africa, leaders have applied the phrase in voicing concerns over the impact of development on local traditions.

It get's more complex when talking about how a community or society might protect its culture abroad as in the global market for antiquities and tribal art. For example, a recent sale of Hopi masks in Paris caused emotional reactions that transcended current cultural property laws. Shared cultural heritage, such as UNESCO World Heritage sites, also expands the meaning of the phrase. When monuments on the World Heritage list are threatened by natural erosion or economic development, cultural security has global significance.

There seems to be a common thread in meaning that "cultural security" is the challenge of preserving cultural identity in the face of modernization and globalization.

But it's no longer quite that neatly defined.

In some cases, property and traditions are deliberately targeted with the intent of undermining or even eliminating a culture. In World War II, Nazi destruction of Slavic heritage and illicit acquisition of art from Jewish collectors are poignant examples. More recently, the demolition of the giant statues of Buddha in the Bamiyan Valley of Afghanistan terrorized locals and shocked the world as did the destruction of Sufi shrines in Timbuktu, Mali. In each case, the destruction of cultural property was related to violence against an ethnicity or religion. In each case, the targeted destruction undermined a sense of security.

As a result, the security of cultural property is now also related to how safe individuals feel, and so the phrase "cultural security" has taken on new meaning. The Director-General of UNESCO has even cast cultural heritage as relevant to international security. Simultaneously, a lucrative market for cultural artifacts from emerging nations attracts the attention of organized crime and, thereby, adds a dimension to cultural security.

The expanding meaning of the phrase suggests that culture will play an increasingly important role in global politics, economics, and security.
Concerns about the revenues that terrorist groups may derive from the trade in antiquities emphasize the growing significance of culture property in international security. Among other implications, the concerns illuminate two important... more
Concerns about the revenues that terrorist groups may derive from the trade in antiquities emphasize the growing significance of culture property in international security. Among other implications, the concerns illuminate two important points. Threats to cultural heritage during armed conflict are no longer simply an art-for-art’s-sake issue, and methods for quantifying the threats are of increasing importance if not overdue. Largely reactionary efforts to quantify the illicit trade in antiquities are consequently hampered by limited experience with an opaque market. In contrast, opportunities exist for designing methods that exploit accessible data sources and have the potential to anticipate risk. The foresight would enable nations to realize the political value of cultural policy and thereby shape policy that protects cultural heritage. One example is repatriation of cultural patrimony. International disputes over possession of traded or displaced antiquities reflect evolving political interest in cultural property. Currently, “collecting nations,” such as the United States, take a reactive approach and respond to calls for repatriation on a case-by-case basis. Just as the illicit trade in antiquities developed into a concern for national security, calls for repatriation could have increasingly serious ramifications in foreign relations. Preliminary analysis of historical trends in disputes over cultural property indicates increasing risk of calls for repatriation, while current reports of looting in Syria and Iraq indicate a future generation of politically charged disputes. A concerted effort in assessing trends in international disputes has the potential to shape policy that leverages cultural property in foreign relations. Implementation of the policy would promote protection of cultural sites in regions of conflict and increase transparency of the antiquities market. The resulting practices have the potential to mitigate of looting of cultural artifacts by organized crime and forestall targeting of cultural heritage by terrorist groups.
Concerns about the revenues that terrorist groups may derive from the trade in antiquities emphasize the growing significance of culture property in international security. Among other implications, the concerns illuminate two important... more
Concerns about the revenues that terrorist groups may derive from the trade in antiquities emphasize the growing significance of culture property in international security. Among other implications, the concerns illuminate two important points. Threats to cultural heritage during armed conflict are no longer simply an art-for-art’s-sake issue, and methods for quantifying the threats are of increasing importance if not overdue. Largely reactionary efforts to quantify the illicit trade in antiquities are consequently hampered by limited experience with an opaque market. In contrast, opportunities exist for designing methods that exploit accessible data sources and have the potential to anticipate risk. The foresight would enable nations to realize the political value of cultural policy and thereby shape policy that protects cultural heritage. One example is repatriation of cultural patrimony. International disputes over possession of traded or displaced antiquities reflect evolving political interest in cultural property. Currently, “collecting nations,” such as the United States, take a reactive approach and respond to calls for repatriation on a case-by-case basis. Just as the illicit trade in antiquities developed into a concern for national security, calls for repatriation could have increasingly serious ramifications in foreign relations. Preliminary analysis of historical trends in disputes over cultural property indicates increasing risk of calls for repatriation, while current reports of looting in Syria and Iraq indicate a future generation of politically charged disputes. A concerted effort in assessing trends in international disputes has the potential to shape policy that leverages cultural property in foreign relations. Implementation of the policy would promote protection of cultural sites in regions of conflict and increase transparency of the antiquities market. The resulting practices have the potential to mitigate of looting of cultural artifacts by organized crime and forestall targeting of cultural heritage by terrorist groups.
Reports that implicate the crime-terror nexus in trafficking in antiquities warrant closer inspection of the risks posed by the tactical exploitation of cultural patrimony. This panel explores the means of interdiction and diplomacy for... more
Reports that implicate the crime-terror nexus in trafficking in antiquities warrant closer inspection of the risks posed by the tactical exploitation of cultural patrimony. This panel explores the means of interdiction and diplomacy for countering transnational trafficking in antiquities. The historically clandestine nature of the antiquities trade and disconnect between due diligence and laws governing the transfer of cultural property have challenged countermeasures to looting and trafficking in antiquities. The challenges create opportunities for terrorist groups and insurgencies that operate in proximity to coveted archaeological sites to collaborate with transnational organized crime in exploiting the multibillion-dollar illicit trade in cultural patrimony. Legal cases for repatriations of Greek and Roman antiquities have publicized negotiations between market and source nations and, in turn, have brought greater transparency to the antiquities trade. Simultaneously, increasing awareness of the political clout of cultural patrimony has motivated collection of intelligence on the lucrative market, and insights into the value of cultural patrimony to security policy in source nations create opportunities to compel due diligence in market nations. Difficulties and risks in following through with prosecution suggest the need for complementary methods to counter trafficking.
Within the broader examination of culture and national security, cultural security examines the role of artworks, historic structures, and religious monuments in international security. I will briefly describe the evolving role of... more
Within the broader examination of culture and national security, cultural security examines the role of artworks, historic structures, and religious monuments in international security. I will briefly describe the evolving role of cultural patrimony in armed and political conflict over the past century and present a framework for the risks and opportunities of cultural patrimony in foreign policy. Next, I will present the historical function of cultural intelligence in conflict and suggest future applications of cultural intelligence to assess security risks associated with cultural patrimony. I will provide examples that assess the financial value of artworks and identify the symbolic significance cultural structures. The financial assessments draw on data from auction archives, and the symbolic assessments apply concepts of neuroscience. The examples also demonstrate the range of data and disciplines with relevance to cultural security.

In conclusion, I will use the concept of memory to illustrate the need for a multidisciplinary approach. Memory has fundamental significance when considering the function of cultural identity in international security. Neuroscience, Cognitive Science, Psychology, and Rhetorical Studies each contribute to an understanding of the role of memory in cultural identity.
The tightening interrelation of cultural property and international security—cultural security—creates a need for the collection and analysis of specialized intelligence. “Cultural intelligence” enables assessments of the tactical and... more
The tightening interrelation of cultural property and international security—cultural security—creates a need for the collection and analysis of specialized intelligence. “Cultural intelligence” enables assessments of the tactical and strategic significance of antiquities, artworks, and cultural sites in international security. This paper defines a framework for the collection of cultural intelligence as a fundamental asset in countering threats to cultural security. Looting of antiquities as a tactic in campaigns of cultural cleansing, trafficking in antiquities as a source of funding for non-state actors, and targeting of historic structures and religious monuments in political violence each represent distinct threats to international security. A critical initial step in countering the threats includes marshaling appropriate sources of information. Open-source publications that report on the art market and cultural property globally and players in the antiquities trade offer opportunities for the collection of cultural intelligence. Ultimately, the development of tactical and strategic cultural intelligence can reveal trafficking networks and assess risks to cultural sites. As a starting point, this paper identifies viable sources of cultural intelligence. Conflicts in Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003) provide examples in retrospect, while volatility in Mali presents an opportunity in the context of an emerging security risk. In conclusion, the paper speculates on the applications of cultural intelligence in international security.
Academia and the media are critical to raising awareness of cultural heritage and promoting protection of cultural property. The effectiveness with which scholars and journalists provide knowledge and information on the visual arts has... more
Academia and the media are critical to raising awareness of cultural heritage and promoting protection of cultural property. The effectiveness with which scholars and journalists provide knowledge and information on the visual arts has also influenced the illicit market in fine art and antiquities. This panel will examine how scholarly and general knowledge of the market value of artworks abets art crime. The talks will provide historical perspectives on crimes against individual works of fine art and collections of antiquities. Case studies will illustrate how scholarly and popular understandings of the value of art incite fraud and theft. The scale of precipitating offenses ranges from orchestrations of thefts of individual artworks to nationwide looting. The talks will provide for a rich discussion on how misuses and misunderstandings of the value of artworks motivate offenses.
Both generalized web search engines and discipline-specific bibliographic databases will need to evolve to remain competitive—comprehensive and authoritative—in discovery of scholarly literature. Initiatives such as Google Scholar and... more
Both generalized web search engines and discipline-specific bibliographic databases will need to evolve to remain competitive—comprehensive and authoritative—in discovery of scholarly literature. Initiatives such as Google Scholar and Microsoft Academic-live Search, acknowledge the importance of specialization in searching for scholarly literature, and rising expectations of comprehensive access require that discipline-specific databases increase coverage. In parallel, cross-disciplinary pursuits such as neuroaesthetics—neuroscience and art history—increase the need for an integrated search of specialized databases. By following models of open collaboration in Web 2.0 and applying thesauri in the ontology of the Semantic Web, producers of discipline-specific databases can apply existing knowledge bases not only to expand coverage and maximize discovery of scholarly literature but also to foster interdisciplinarity. A strategy for leveraging primary assets of a specialized database—discipline-specific partnerships, expert abstracts and indexing, and discipline-specific thesauri—serves as a case study. The strategy illuminates the potential for integrating a discipline-specific database in the humanities with datasets from the sciences through the evolving infrastructure of the Web.
Both generalized web search engines and discipline-specific bibliographic databases will need to evolve to remain competitive—comprehensive and authoritative—in discovery of scholarly literature. Initiatives such as Google Scholar and... more
Both generalized web search engines and discipline-specific bibliographic databases will need to evolve to remain competitive—comprehensive and authoritative—in discovery of scholarly literature. Initiatives such as Google Scholar and Microsoft Academic-live Search, acknowledge the importance of specialization in searching for scholarly literature, and rising expectations of comprehensive access require that discipline-specific databases increase coverage. In parallel, cross-disciplinary pursuits such as neuroaesthetics—neuroscience and art history—increase the need for an integrated search of specialized databases. By following models of open collaboration in Web 2.0 and applying thesauri in the ontology of the Semantic Web, producers of discipline-specific databases can apply existing knowledge bases not only to expand coverage and maximize discovery of scholarly literature but also to foster interdisciplinarity. A strategy for leveraging primary assets of a specialized database—discipline-specific partnerships, expert abstracts and indexing, and discipline-specific thesauri—serves as a case study. The strategy illuminates the potential for integrating a discipline-specific database in the humanities with datasets from the sciences through the evolving infrastructure of the Web.
Growing political significance of cultural property over the past half century has expanded interest in looted art. As one aspect of the expansion, interrelation of international security and illicit activities in the art market engenders... more
Growing political significance of cultural property over the past half century has expanded interest in looted art. As one aspect of the expansion, interrelation of international security and illicit activities in the art market engenders diverse motives for tracking fine art and antiquities of questionable provenance. As a component of the burgeoning illicit trade in art, looted art compels the attention of law enforcement agencies and legal services that, in turn, contribute to the dynamic evolution of practices in restitution and indemnification. Currently, high-profile restitution cases of paintings plundered during World War II reflect an increasing market value for looted fine art and have implications for antiquities looted throughout the Cold War and in the conflict with transnational terrorism. The role of stolen fine art as collateral in drug deals and the coincidence of terrorist groups in so-called source nations for antiquities suggest an intersection with counterterrorism objectives. How has the connection of art trafficking to international security affected the treatment of looted art? An examination of the potential motives of security-intelligence agencies for taking an interest in the illicit trade in art provides insights into the effects on restitution.
Over the past two centuries, abuse of antiquities and fine art has evolved from the spoils-of-war into a medium for conducting terrorism which strives to erase the cultural heritage of ‘the other’. In contrast to wartime destruction and... more
Over the past two centuries, abuse of antiquities and fine art has evolved from the spoils-of-war into a medium for conducting terrorism which strives to erase the cultural heritage of ‘the other’. In contrast to wartime destruction and plunder, which date back millennia, the growth of the art market over the past fifty years has created opportunities for novel abuses of cultural property. Since World War II, maturing international awareness has recognized the threat that armed conflict and looting pose to cultural property, but in parallel, art trafficking and the politics of cultural property have become tools for organized crime and emerging nations. The resulting unique intersection of issues in cultural property, foreign policy, and national security forms the basis for a new field—cultural security. After an assessment of topical security threats, which suggest the need for such a field, the talk concludes by speculating on the “alternative power” of an emerging political economy of cultural property.
Creativity inspires artistic movements, but what causes innovation in the art market? Exchange of art within and between cultures has a long history. Civilizations, empires, and nations have shared artworks in diplomacy and plundered... more
Creativity inspires artistic movements, but what causes innovation in the art market? Exchange of art within and between cultures has a long history. Civilizations, empires, and nations have shared artworks in diplomacy and plundered cultural treasures in conquest from antiquity to the present. The commercial aspect of the transfer of artworks has, however, evolved as the gradual development of the art market over the last few centuries has enriched the political economy of cultural exchange. In this case, “political economy” refers to interconnection of the art market and a shifting balance of global power. Over the past decade in particular, cultural treasures have taken on new significance in east-west and north-south relations, and emerging economies now have a substantial presence in a truly global art market. Trans-cultural appreciation of artworks and the potential of art as a financial investment create an opportunity, if not a need, for science and technology to innovate in deciphering aesthetics and assessing market value. Studies in neuroaesthetics and art indices represent a start in understanding the political economy of art.
Creativity inspires artistic movements, but what causes innovation in the art market? Exchange of art within and between cultures has a long history. Civilizations, empires, and nations have shared artworks in diplomacy and plundered... more
Creativity inspires artistic movements, but what causes innovation in the art market? Exchange of art within and between cultures has a long history. Civilizations, empires, and nations have shared artworks in diplomacy and plundered cultural treasures in conquest from antiquity to the present. The commercial aspect of the transfer of artworks has, however, evolved as the gradual development of the art market over the last few centuries has enriched the political economy of cultural exchange. In this case, “political economy” refers to interconnection of the art market and a shifting balance of global power. Over the past decade in particular, cultural treasures have taken on new significance in east-west and north-south relations, and emerging economies now have a substantial presence in a truly global art market. Trans-cultural appreciation of artworks and the potential of art as a financial investment create an opportunity, if not a need, for science and technology to innovate in deciphering aesthetics and assessing market value. Studies in neuroaesthetics and art indices represent a start in understanding the political economy of art.
Cultural Learning Collage (CLiC) provides students, researchers, academics, and professionals with an opportunity to frame and explore the security dimensions of cultural identity. The goal is to open up the subject, using collages as a... more
Cultural Learning Collage (CLiC) provides students, researchers, academics, and professionals with an opportunity to frame and explore the security dimensions of cultural identity. The goal is to open up the subject, using collages as a way to encourage creativity about the richness of the connections between culture and security. In turn, data mining the collages will bring insight into those connections – for purposes ranging from policy analysis, to intelligence studies to national security.
What is Cultural Security? I come up with two seemingly opposing definitions: 1) preserving cultural traditions and representations of culture, such as artworks and monuments or 2) enabling integration of cultures to foster cooperation... more
What is Cultural Security? I come up with two seemingly opposing definitions: 1) preserving cultural traditions and representations of culture, such as artworks and monuments or 2) enabling integration of cultures to foster cooperation between nations. One definition protects existing culture, while the other uses culture as a flexible medium for making progress in foreign relations. Both definitions not only are relevant to national security and economic development but also can work together for effective application of cultural security in foreign policy.
I have examined the tactical significance of cultural property during international conflict and the implications for international security. In doing so, I realized a broadening intersection of scholarship in fields such as art and... more
I have examined the tactical significance of cultural property during international conflict and the implications for international security. In doing so, I realized a broadening intersection of scholarship in fields such as art and archaeology with foreign policy and security services.

From the strategic plunder as part of the Nazi campaign of World War II to evidence of organized crime in the looting of the Iraq National Museum in Baghdad, threats to international security have expanded the tactical application of cultural property. Government efforts to mitigate the abuses have drawn on scholars from fields such art history, archaeology, and anthropology and have, thereby, achieved success in recovery and protection of cultural property.

I believe that such collaborations with intelligence and policy analysts would enable innovation in strategies that forestall and potentially leverage the tactical significance of cultural property.
Consequently, I have considered the potential for a cross-disciplinary field of study, which I call Cultural Security.
At the Getty, I am involved in the production of the Bibliography of the History of Art (or BHA), which is a research database with specialized abstracts and indexing for art historians. The evolution of the Web as a tool for searching... more
At the Getty, I am involved in the production of the Bibliography of the History of Art (or BHA), which is a research database with specialized abstracts and indexing for art historians. The evolution of the Web as a tool for searching for scholarly literature creates opportunities as well as challenges for discipline specific research databases such as BHA. The opportunities of enhancing production and increasing access are paralleled by the challenge of third-party mass digitization and full-text searching. In short, what is the value of specialized research databases in the face of searchable and accessible full-text?

Acknowledging the “pull” of the single text box search and perceived universal access of the Web, the answer lies not so much in maintaining viability with scholars of an isolated discipline but rather in enabling access by scholars outside the discipline to foster cross-disciplinary research. As a cross between the arts and the sciences, neuroaesthetics serves as a prime example of cross-disciplinary collaboration, and suggests a secondary title for today’s discussion.
Antiquities trafficking may be funding violent extremism in Syria and Iraq. That’s a valid concern. But is it worth focusing on the financial aspect of looted cultural artifacts at the expense of other ramifications? The frequently... more
Antiquities trafficking may be funding violent extremism in Syria and Iraq. That’s a valid concern. But is it worth focusing on the financial aspect of looted cultural artifacts at the expense of other ramifications? The frequently reported multibillion-dollar value of the annual, global, illicit market in cultural material is eye catching. The estimates, however, are not well documented and, consequently, run the risk of undermining calls for protection of cultural heritage and prevention of cultural cleansing.
Research Interests:
Culture plays an important role in security, and the influence is measurable. National security strategies have leveraged culture in diplomacy, and tangible, cultural property increasingly holds significance for international security. In... more
Culture plays an important role in security, and the influence is measurable. National security strategies have leveraged culture in diplomacy, and tangible, cultural property increasingly holds significance for international security. In particular, the exploitation of cultural artifacts and monuments by non-state actors poses a current threat with long-term ramifications.
Antiquities and historic monuments play a surprisingly common role in international affairs. Now, it’s clear that movies and pop culture can also play a role. Terrorist groups exploit cultural heritage for profit and intentionally destroy... more
Antiquities and historic monuments play a surprisingly common role in international affairs. Now, it’s clear that movies and pop culture can also play a role. Terrorist groups exploit cultural heritage for profit and intentionally destroy irreplaceable antiquities in acts of political violence during conflict. ISIS’s tactics in Syria are a poignant example.
The episode, "Lost Treasures," touches on the intersection of the trade in stolen art and other illicit markets with implications for international security.
What the heck happened to cultural sensibilities last year? While collectors bid up record prices for artworks at auction--Edvard Munch's "The Scream" went for $120 million in May--they were criticized for a lack of aesthetic... more
What the heck happened to cultural sensibilities last year?

While collectors bid up record prices for artworks at auction--Edvard Munch's "The Scream" went for $120 million in May--they were criticized for a lack of aesthetic judgment, especially at the premier U.S. fair, Art Basel Miami Beach. And cultural heritage took a turn for the worse as well.
Even as cultural property faces immediate peril today in conflict zones like Syria and Mali, there is anecdotal evidence that some nations are awakening to the diplomatic and foreign policy benefits that can flow from the repatriation of... more
Even as cultural property faces immediate peril today in conflict zones like Syria and Mali, there is anecdotal evidence that some nations are awakening to the diplomatic and foreign policy benefits that can flow from the repatriation of cultural patrimony.
A few months ago a former British soldier made headlines for trying to sell part of the backside of the Saddam Hussein statue that was famously toppled in 2003. Though Saddam was long gone, the Iraqi government, happy to be rid of him,... more
A few months ago a former British soldier made headlines for trying to sell part of the backside of the Saddam Hussein statue that was famously toppled in 2003. Though Saddam was long gone, the Iraqi government, happy to be rid of him, requested the return of the "artifact." Their interest in repatriating a symbol of their "dictator in hindsight" illustrates the unforeseeable significance of cultural property in foreign relations.